Numerous scholars, including Carter, Chermak, Carter, and Drew (2014) have found that human intelligence employed by law enforcement is particularly important in combatting terrorism at the domestic level. Because of several provisions contained in the USA PATRIOT Act, we are now able to wage a coordinated, integrated counter-terrorism campaign. This research guide contains information-- both current and historical--on the topic of intelligence. It would be an unnecessary gamble, however, to give the surveillance powers now possessed by the FBI to an agency without any track record and tradition of safeguarding fundamental liberties. It is published as part of our mission to showcase peer-leading papers written by students during their studies. 7, 2018. Mark Lowenthal (2002), in his textbook on intelligence and policy, suggests that the word intelligence can be analysed in three different ways. While I am extremely proud of the Department of Justices record in fighting terrorism during my tenure as deputy attorney general, there is more work that needs to be done in order to ensure that the terrorists are defeated and our way of life is preserved. As an example of the limits of the literature, more than sixteen years after 9/11, there has been surprisingly little in-depth, empirical work produced on the intelligence aspects of those attacks. Clark, Robert. The Strategist The Australian Strategic Policy Institute Blog. Intelligence analysis with regard to 9/11 was faulty, according to this view, largely because it put too much emphasis on developing tactical level intelligence, which analysts and officials fail to realize will rarely be available. ), Handbook of Intelligence Studies (pp. The FBI's extensive forensic work is a type of MASINT. Although a full discussion of this topic is beyond the scope of this essay, the literature in this area has expanded considerably since the revelations by Edward Snowden of the National Security Agency intelligence collections programs. (Exceptions include Lesser et al. Allowing section 218 to expire would be a tragic mistake. Second, intelligence services worldwide need to work closely together. This can help you build an assessment of their motivation and capabilities. Intelligence provides the basis for policy or decisions people, organizations and states, if they are to act rationally, will do so after canvassing fully the alternative courses of action open to them and their costs and benefits (Gill & Phythian, 2006, p. 33). To me, there are three implications of the importance of intelligence. The Economist, for example, argues (2003, p. 30) that the focus on improving analysis found in much of the discussion about intelligence reform distracts attention from the real need: improved espionage, to provide the essential missing intelligence. The best way to do it, the magazines editors argued, is to place spies within the innermost councils of terrorist organizations. The first step in disrupting terrorist plots and preventing terrorist attacks is obtaining information about the operations of terrorist groups and the activities of individual terrorists, both inside and outside of our nations borders. It's a requirement for accomplishing anything of value. International Journal of Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence , 16 (4), 527-542. Classic modes of collection, including official cover, are crucial to detect and counter state sponsorship of terrorism and to work with foreign agencies engaged in domestic intelligence and law enforcement at the local level (p. 414). What is Intelligence? As the years since the attacks of 9/11 have passed, there has developed within some members of the intelligence studies community a belief that the subject of terrorism has been sufficiently covered in the literature and it is time to focus on other challenges (Johnson & Shelton, 2013). The importance of intelligence liaison relationships for counterterrorism was recognized well before 9/11 (e.g., Motley, 1986), but such arrangements are becoming increasingly important today in what Michael Herman calls the internationalization of intelligence (2004, p. 349350). This means that investigations of lone-wolf terrorists now must proceed under the stricter standards and shorter time periods for investigating ordinary crimes set forth in Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968.. Because traditional intelligence threat assessments are more difficult to produce, many intelligence and security officials have begun to use vulnerability based assessments that start by identifying ones own vulnerabilities and then develop scenarios the enemy may follow. It is a massive exporter of technical intelligence while it is also surprisingly dependent on friends for certain kinds of espionage (p. 54). Written at: Loughborough University A solid functioning ILP approach to data and information gathering and analysis allows police forces to assess a greater number of crime-related . But much of the work in this area remains general in nature, with many articles consisting primarily of a reminder that terrorism is an especially difficult problem combined with a recommendation that intelligence agencies place greater emphasis on certain problems or make greater use of particular analytical or collection techniques, and that they increase their focus on domestic collection. Some analysts and scholars take a macro view, arguing that blame for 9/11 must be assigned more widely than just to the intelligence community. (2005). Thirdly, the role of intelligence in influencing state policies will be analysed as well as its engagement in covert action followed by a brief presentation of 2003 Iraqs case. James Hansen puts it starkly: The al-Qaeda network is believed by some to be the most difficult intelligence adversary the U.S. has ever faced (2004, p. 692). Often, the business of intelligence is surrounded in myth that is created by the production spy novels and movies such as James Bond. At the beginning of the XXI century, there is still no widely established definition of intelligence (Warner, 2009, p. 6) as each author draws upon his/her personal experience. Section 218 of the PATRIOT Act, however, changed the law to clarify that FISA can be used whenever foreign intelligence is a significant purpose of a national security investigation, thus allowing for greater sharing and consultation between intelligence and law enforcement officials. Scott, L., & Jackson, P. (2004). Additional challenges for intelligence agencies have been created because at the same time that public attention is being focused on intelligence, the struggle against international terrorism has placed more emphasis on the aspects of the intelligence business that are the most secret, such as covert operations and espionage (Herman, 2004; Kibbe, 2007). This then enables you to make better data-driven decisions within your business. The more information you are able to gather during this phase, the more vectors of attack you may be able to use in the future. Knowing what terrorists may do depends largely on human sourcesundercover agents and informants. See, Hear, Sniff: How Airborne Spies Collect Intel, Too Much Information: Ineffective Intelligence Collection, What Does Collection Mean? This is why I strongly oppose the call by some for the creation of a separate domestic intelligence agency, such as the United Kingdoms MI-5. Such walls would increase the risk that critical information would not be shared with law enforcement officials in a timely manner and reverse the integration of intelligence efforts and law enforcement efforts that has proven so successful since September 11th. Ian Lesser, for example, argued (Lesser et al., 1999) that the increasing reliance by terrorists on modern information technology would introduce new possibilities for monitoring and surveillance. lford: Frank Cass & Co. Gill, P. (2004). Following the passage of the PATRIOT Act, the attorney general also instructed all U.S. attorneys to review intelligence files to discover whether there was a basis for bringing criminal charges against the subjects of intelligence investigations. Herman, M. (2001). Our judgements about the scale of various threats and how . Intelligence is generally understood to have increased in importance and prestige since the 9/11 attacks. Moreover, an international terrorist need not be affiliated with a terrorist organization to cause a significant loss of American lives; a single foreign terrorist with a chemical, biological, or radiological weapon is capable of inflicting tremendous damage on this country, and FISA should be amended to reflect this reality. . We need to expand our understanding of the threats and challenges we face by expanding the intelligence capabilities of all our allies and partners. What threat does ISIL pose to the homeland? There are so many resources available it can be hard to know where to start. In addition, several important intelligence-related topics are discussed elsewhere in the Encyclopedia, so they are not covered in detail here: intelligence reform and oversight, the debate over how to balance liberty and security in domestic intelligence, the ethics of intelligence work, the continually expanding role of drones in intelligence and counterterrorism, the high profile intelligence leaks by Bradley (now Chelsea) Manning and Edward Snowden, and the use of interrogation and torture. . Several authors have produced valuable article- and chapter-length overviews of intelligence and terrorism in the post-9/11 era (e.g., Campbell & Flournoy, 2001; Ball, 2002; Sims, 2007a; Rosenbach, 2008; Builta & Heller, 2011; Allen, 2013; Byman, 2014), and useful research has been done concerning specific issues such as the importance of human intelligence and the need for improved international intelligence coordination. Journal of Information Privacy & Security. And section 905 of the PATRIOT Act requires that the attorney general, subject to certain exceptions, disclose to the director of central intelligence foreign intelligence acquired by the Department of Justice in the course of a criminal investigation. 2, 2018. Most of the top competitive intelligence professionals do not take advantage of illegal or unethical means to conduct their business. We are now in an age in which our primary adversary is easy to kill, but hard to find (Hayden, 2007). Keegan, J. This article is organized into four sections. Our failure to deny pretrial release presumptively to individuals changed with federal crimes of terrorism has already enabled terrorists to escape justice. The link was not copied. Joshua Rovner, for example, writes, September 11 was not an intelligence failure, it was a national failure (Rovner, 2005, p. 3). Intelligence and National Security , 19 (3), 467-489. Most people imagine that intelligence work focuses on foreign intelligence agencies managing espionage and covert missions against real or imagined enemies. I hope these bills are swiftly enacted into law. Following much the same logic as the earlier literature, and indeed often including the same thinkers, the orthodox school argues that intelligence failures such as 9/11 are largely unpreventable, and that while some improvements to intelligence are possible, the best policy option is to assume that surprise attacks like 9/11 or the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing will often succeed and prepare to deal with their effects. Publicly, leaders often only talk about their militaries when discussing the critical tools of national security. This view sees the surprise aspect of the attack as having been caused largely by preventable analytical and communications failures on the part of the intelligence community and policy makers who lacked the imagination to connect the dots (as the 9/11 Commission famously argued) and to make sense of the information that had been available (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 2004, p. 408). Date written: May 2013, All content on the website (with the exception of images) is published under the following Creative Commons License, Copyright E-International Relations. Donations are voluntary and not required to download the e-book - your link to download is below. Security intelligence must remain a limited means of governance, and not become an end in itself. Understanding Intelligence in the Twenty-First Century: Journey in Shadows. To conduct competitor analysis - Market intelligence is a vast field. There are no troop mobilizations to watch for, no ships, no aircraft to track. Penetrating small terrorist groups may take months, years. As Jenkins indicates, human intelligence is something of a dilemma for intelligence agencies, as on the one hand it is critical in the fight against terrorism, but on the other hand it is extremely difficult to obtain (see also Lewis, 2004; Betts, 2007; Weiner, 2007; and an insightful first-hand account in Crumpton, 2012). In addition to allowing law enforcement officials to provide valuable information to the intelligence community, the PATRIOT Act also has enhanced the flow of information from intelligence officials to the law enforcement community. This mornings panel addresses the vital topic of Intelligence Collection within the United States. The collection of intelligence within the United States is obviously a critical component of the federal governments efforts in the war against terrorism. And Daniel Byman (2017) reviews the many difficulties involved with international intelligence cooperation, describing liaison relationships as a vital but imperfect weapon in the US counterterrorism arsenal (p. 155). Written by: Karolis Kupcikas Section 218 of the PATRIOT Act, however, changed the law to clarify that FISA can be used whenever foreign intelligence is a "significant purpose" of a national security investigation, thus. Currently, FISAs definition of the agent of a foreign power only includes individuals with ties to groups that engage in international terrorism. As Arthur Hulnick (2005) writes, Nothing is more important in the world of intelligence than preventing surprise (p. 593). On occasion, intelligence agencies participate in actions to prevent such activities from . PIJ is alleged to be one of the worlds most violent terrorist outfits, responsible for murdering over 100 innocent people, including Alisa Flatow, a young American killed in a bus bombing near the Israeli settlement of Kfar Darom. A high IQ is regularly an essential for ascending to the best positions of business today. 4, 2015. 1, Fall 2008. But the most common callmost notably by the 9/11 Commissionhas been for greater centralization of the American intelligence community, leading to the creation of what has become the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. This commission has the potential to make a valuable contribution to this cause, and I am looking forward to reading your report and recommendations when they are released. Thinkers in the CIA critics school often advocate greater use of covert operations and preemptive military force against terrorist targets, but the major recommendation from this school is for increased emphasis on human intelligence. David Kahn writes that the war on terrorism has featured intelligence in a starring role (2006, p. 134), while, according to Michael Herman, Intelligence has been riding high since 11 September (Herman, 2002, p. 227). Firstly, it will shed light upon the controversial concept of intelligence distinguishing it from simple information and bogus spy stories. Identifying the significance of Human Intelligence in the post 9/11 environment will aim to renew confidence in the effectiveness of the HUMINT enterprise and its reliability for being a premier intelligence asset in combating transnational threats. Securing the Globe: Intelligence and the Post-9/11 Shift from Liddism to Drainism. Charles Cogan writes that intelligence operatives of the 21st century will have to be more like hunters than gatherers: They will not simply sit back and gather information that comes in, analyze it and then decide what to do about it. There have been times of greater dangerthe Cuban Missile Crisis, for examplebut there has never been a time in when the sheer number of issues has been so large. . However, could it be said that the modern transformation of intelligence by the application of highly sophisticated surveillance and information technology has overshadowed the fact that, at its core, it remains an intellectual process? Stella Rimington, the former head of Britains domestic intelligence organization MI5, writes that terrorism intelligence is not developed by spies overseas as often as one may expect: My own experience is that effective counter-terrorism frequently begins closer to home and may appear a lot more mundane (2005, p. 30). Some thinkers argue that the new threats since 9/11, combined with changes in information technology and in the nature of warfare, require nothing less than a revolution in intelligence affairs (Barger, 2005; see also Lahneman, 2007). In an important early article, Shlomo Gazit and Michael Handel make several arguments: (a) that in the intelligence effort against terrorism, overt collection was the least valuable source; (b) aerial photography was not very important; (c) technical intelligence, including signals intelligence, was of greater importance; but (d) the most . Michael Morell was the Acting Director and Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 2010 to 2013 and a 33-year veteran of the Agency. Intelligence agencies not only engage in rather passive activity of gathering intelligence on world affairs, but also try to intervene covertly to influence events. Exceptions include Le Gallo (2005) on covert action, and Wannall (2002), Danis (2007), Shultz and Beitler (2004), and Mobley (2012) on counterintelligence. And it may require an even more dramatic and fundamental change. Protective intelligence provides actionable intelligence from a strategic, operational and tactical perspective. The U.S. attorneys Office for the Southern District of New York, for example, had accumulated extensive intelligence during its investigation and prosecution of numerous significant terrorism cases, such as the 1993 attack on the World Trade Center and the 2000 attack on the U.S.S. Collecting intelligence to build up a detailed knowledge of threats to the country is at the heart of MI5's work. Intelligence specialises in the hard to find. Some reformists focus on improving the systems, networks, and procedures used to process and analyze information within the intelligence community (Kamarck, 2005). Betts, for example, notes in his classic statement of the orthodox approach to intelligence failure that [u]nlike organizational structure . In particular, it is important to note that no court has found any abuse of civil liberties to date in relation to the implementation of PATRIOT Act. Several authors view human intelligence (HUMINT) as the most important factor in countering terrorism. See, e.g., United States v. Truong, 629 F.2d 908 (4th Cir. 14-29). Why is threat intelligence important? The third section reviews how scholars and policy experts have answered what some consider to be the most important questions in this literature: Why have intelligence agencies failed to prevent 9/11 and other major terrorist attacks, and what must be done to improve their ability to prevent future attacks? Why intelligence gathering is important in every country? Odom, W. E. (2008). Vol. One advantage of OSINT is its accessibility, although the sheer amount of available information can make it difficult to know what is of value. 34). (2003). Examples include the British use of intelligence in Northern Ireland (Bamford, 2005), Greek intelligence success in dismantling the 17 November group (Nomikos, 2007), and the lessons to be learned from the Israeli intelligence communitys experience with terrorism (Kahana, 2005; Pedahzur & Perliger, 2007). Hughes, G. (2011). London: Franks Cass. This metaphorical wall between intelligence officials and law enforcement officials often inhibited vital information sharing and coordination and was a personal source of frustration for me. Policy makers as well as scholars have made the point that the war on terrorism is unusual in that intelligence occupies such a critical part. In addition to the debate on who should bear the responsibility for that intelligence failure, more broadly the question also remains of how well has the U.S. intelligence community has performed against terrorism in general. Reuel Marc Gerecht expresses this view in arguing that the example of John Walker Lindh demonstrates that it was possible for Americans to penetrate al-Qaeda. Besides, regardless of the large financial resources, the worlds most high-profile intelligence agency, the CIA, has failed to foresee the coming of important events and major calamities: building of the Berlin Wall, fall of the Soviet Union, 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait or the 2003 unsuccessful Western invasion of Iraq. Many analytical techniques deploy sophisticated software facilitating the analysis of relational data. Intelligence and National Security. Heres a second way to think about itthe way Mike Hayden, a former director of both CIA and NSA, likes to put it. Some are skeptical about the belief that increased HUMINT is the answer. However, one of the paradoxes facing those countries wealthy enough to maintain a variety of different intelligence agencies collecting information by different technical (SIGINT) and human methods (HUMINT) is how to make sense of the masses of information and possible competing analyses that result (Dupont, 2003). In a comment written before 9/11 but often cited since those attacks as an illustration of how the CIA has been too risk-averse and bureaucratic, Reuel Marc Gerecht (2001) quotes a CIA case officer as saying: Operations that include diarrhea as a way of life dont happen (p. 40). While intelligence officials could share information with prosecutors, the decision to do so always rested with national-security personnel, even though law-enforcement agents were in a better position to determine what evidence was pertinent to their criminal case. Intelligence and National Security , 23 (3), 316-332. Intelligence Gathering is performing reconnaissance against a target to gather as much information as possible to be utilized when penetrating the target during the vulnerability assessment and exploitation phases. Intelligence information helps police to solve cases and make arrests that can lead to successful prosecution in court. 291292; see also Shultz & Vogt, 2003). This early work contains strikingly similar issues and arguments that have appeared continuously since. Zegart argues that, years after 9/11, the intelligence community remains disorganized, lacks central direction, and duplicates much of its efforts. The Senate has already passed legislation allowing for the surveillance under FISA of lone-wolf terrorists, and I hope that this proposal is swiftly enacted into law. Measurement and Signatures Intelligence has become increasingly important due to growing concern about the existence and spread of weapons of mass destruction. Policy is usually formulated based on principles or grounded in ideology, while intelligence is produced by evaluating dry information. For instance, Jeffrey Battle, a member of the terrorist cell in Portland, Oregon, complained after his arrest in 2002 that people were scared to provide him with help, such as buying him airplane tickets, because such activities could land those individuals in jail. Studies in Intelligence , 44 (2). Using intelligence skills to target criminals ethically and proportionately A role where it's important to keep on top of your continuing professional development and learn from research and analysis colleagues Published 5 November 2020 Case study How an accountant's skills helped her move into intelligence policing Intelligence in War: Knowledge of the Enemy from Napoleon to Al-Qaeda. ILP is a proactive way of thinking in law enforcement. Section 218 of the PATRIOT Act has already produced important dividends in the war against terrorism. . 2001. Our world is always changing, with new techniques, new materials, and new protocols to enhance the way things operate and function. During my tenure as deputy attorney general, the Department of Justice utilized these provisions of the PATRIOT Act on dozens of occasions to disclose vital information to the intelligence community. Addicott, Jeffrey. In closing, I thank you again for giving me the opportunity to share my thoughts with you today. Commentators such as Marrin (2003) note that homeland security intelligence requires new and greater forms of oversight, like those that emerged from the class-action lawsuit against NYPDs intelligence service during the 1970s, which resulted in the so-called Handschu agreement limiting intelligence collection by that local agency. This literature can be divided into three schools of thought, each of which offers a distinct analysis of what has gone wrong in the past and what should be done in the future. Although the topics reviewed here are some of the most commonly discussed issues in the literature on intelligence and terrorism, many authors have focused on more specific questions. Be a tragic mistake depends largely on human sourcesundercover agents and informants together. 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