), Current Studies in Social Psychology (pp. Coercion will produce decreased attraction of P toward O and high resistance. The influencee's underlying feelings of "oughtness" toward the compliant behavior and "has the right" toward the influencer characterize this power base. In this brief. For example, cf. chenbo zhong, University of Toronto, Canada, Lingru Wei, Tencent Holdings Limited 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Cf. The empirical data reveal that own cooperation and expert power are the most frequently cited bases of power to influence purchase decisions. These are the resources of A and the needs or "motive base" of B. Because social power has been studied from so many perspectives, it's understandable that a wide variety of definitions and operationalizations have resulted. Open Journal of Political Science, The links between Raven 's (1965) and Kelman 's (1958) models of influence were assessed in a questionnaire study. The strength of the coercive power depends on the magnitude of punishment times the difference between the probability of punishment for nonconformity and the probability of punishment for conformity. Christen/ Iyer/ Soberman (2006), p. 139. John Schopler and Nicholas Bateson, "The Power of Dependence,'' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2 (1965), 247-254. Each form of power, when used to influence someone, has a different impact on relationships and outcomes, some better than others. To achieve an alpha level of 0.8, five items were required. startxref 107167; Engelhart (1994a), pp. 132f. /Linearized 1 The first assumption will be addressed in the analysis section. These incompletes did not occur in any particular class or any one influence treatment. The coercion SP items, as expected, centered around potential harm and punishment from the influencer. The item loadings were consistently high and an alpha level of over 0.80 was obtained with the first three items. Koslowsky/ Schwarzwald/ Ashuri (2001), p. 456. Reward will result in increased attraction and low . Vandenbosch (1999), p. 82; Ansari/Euske (1987), p. 552; Burchell et al. While informational power derives from the . /H [ 868 238 ] 371-382). For the expert situations, it was difficult to generate a situation free of informational power. Power and Social Influence 131 Power based on one's credibility or perceived expertise in an area. <> These constructs were the French and Raven bases of social power which have been widely cited and used in much of the social power literature. that the SpAds relentless pursuit of the Ministers agenda is distinctly Hirst/ Baxter (1993), p. 192. Supervisors will oftentimes need to monitor their subordinates in order to ensure a successful influence attempt. 0000001106 00000 n Thus, according to this conceptualization, the extent to which agent A has control over B's behavior will depend on the magnitude of the force which he can bring to bear on B and upon B's resistance. Because he/she knew what was best in this case and so I did what he/she asked you to do, 4. endobj This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves. In the tactical model, [] social science research is used for purposes that have little relation to the substance of the research. In this study, the authors sought to determine the differential susceptibility to a social power base as utilized by one's spouse. 0000003785 00000 n ), Perspectives on social power. ): The probability that one actor in a social relationship will carry out his own will also against reluctance, no matter on what this probability is based. It needs to be pointed out that although Weber (1922) provides an assimilable power definition, he is not considered a power base theorist. In: Power Bases and Informational Influence Strategies. Situation #4, an example of legitimate power, deserves comment. Bertram H. Raven, Richard Centers, and Aroldo Rodrigues, "The Bases of Conjugal Power," in R. E. Cromwell and D. H. Olson (eds.) To achieve an alpha level of 0.8, five items were required. 0000015407 00000 n Cf. administrative traditions greatly influence SpAds tasks; arrangements with the Changing . In the present study, an experimental design was conducted in which 100 participants were asked to gain compliance from in-group and out-group members. The consistency between the scale values and situations suggest that the scales have reasonable predictive validity. to policy delivery by acting as a bridge between Secretary of State and This study investigates presidential leadership in decision-making at three private Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and compares understandings of presidential power within and among the three colleges given their unique institutional contexts. As expected, the items dealing with the "logic," "good reasoning" and "sense" of the influencer's message are the best items for the information scale. The factor analysis was performed for each set of items (basis of power) across all situations. The effectiveness of the experimental treatments is often not verified by manipulation check measures. Recognising that SpAds take on the role of temporary Lee/ Allen/ Meyer (2001), p. 597; Meyer/Allen (1991), p. 67; Allen/Meyer (1990), p. 1. In response to new theoretical conceptualizations (Raven, 1992, 1993), an instrument was developed to measure 11 bases of power, the original 6 French and Raven (1959; Raven, 1965) bases of power, with 3 of these further differentiated: reward (personal, impersonal), coercion (personal. Darwin Cartwright, "A Field Theoretical Conception of Power," in D. Cartwright (ed.) the recent reforms that spawned the emergence of SpAds, but also because Current Studies in Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965), 371-382. That is, this power stems from the "logic," "reasoning" or importance of the communication provided by the influencing agent and independent of the communicator. The six judges rated thirty-six situations for each type of influence on a 1 to 5 scale having end points of "does not depict this type of power" and "clearly depicts this type of social power." While some research situations may require alternative criteria for item selection (i.e., a wide content of scale items), the issue of internal consistency is still important. <> These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. Referent power, involving identification of P with O, will tend to have the broadest range. 713-5). Paul Busch and David T. Wilson, "An Experimental Analysis of a Salesman's Expert and Referent Bases of Social Power in the Buyer-Seller Dyad," Journal of Marketing Research, 13 (February, 1976), 3-11. Reward - This results from one person's ability to compensate another for compliance. Thus, the more powerful is obligated to perform the duties associated with the powerful role position and submit to the demands of the influencee. 99f. . The referent conditions of low and high similarity were created by using Byrne's attitude similarity procedure (Byrne, 1961, pp. Using these "known" situations as standards, the predictive ability of the scales was examined. (6YD{ HK) Because this power base is often derived from many complex societal and personal values, the range of legitimate power A has over B will vary across situations. This confounding is understandable considering the close theoretical meaning of these two types of social influence. One paradoxical type of legitimate influence is that of the "dependent" and "powerless." Somech/ Drach-Zahavy (2002), pp. /T 785253 The degree of expert power is a function of the amount of knowledge the influencee has and the degree to which the knowledge or skills of the influencer are appropriate for a given situation. The legitimate SP scale items had fairly high factor loadings. Also, the use of a panel of trained judges to screen the test items, and the "face" validity of the scale items suggest that the social power scales have an acceptable level of content validity. FIGURE 1 SELECTED SITUATION SCENARIOS Procedure The final instrument consisted of one scenario and the 85 test items which were arranged in random order. Own compilation following Yukl (2006), p. 170. For the consumer behavior areas of family decision making and attitude change, interpersonal influence processes are of particular importance. Univer. Table 22.3. Etzioni (1975), p. 3. This conceptualization follows from the early work of Kurt Lewin (1951), who posited a model of human behavior based upon forces within one's life space. French and Raven defined social power as the potential for influence (a change in the belief, attitude or behavior of a someone who is the target of influence. This approach allowed for the development of clear examples of each power basis. Don E. Dulany, Jr., "Hypotheses and Habits in Verbal Operant Conditioning," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63 (September, 1961), 251-263. While this cut-off is arbitrary, it appears to be reasonable for this study. Thus, the more powerful is obligated to perform the duties associated with the powerful role position and submit to the demands of the influencee. While Lewin's and Cartwright's representation of social power and influence strongly mirror the physical sciences' notion of force vectors, they do include several important psychological aspects. This was necessary to ensure that the later scale results could be validated with a known situation treatment (i.e., the "expertise" power score would be highest in the expertise situations.) They were also informed that if they felt that they could not perform the task in a conscientious manner, to please return the questionnaire unmarked or incomplete. Harold H. Kelly, "Two Functions of Reference Groups," in G. E. Sevanson, T. M. Newcomb and E. L. Hartley (eds.) These constructs were the French and Raven bases of social power which have been widely cited and used in much of the social power literature. lhvwqfY@O>jt)20F9}x6qC[VNn/-/~o~Z u! In summary, the scales for the French and Raven power bases provide reasonable levels of internal consistency. Kurt Lewin, Field Theory in Social Science (New York: Harper, 1951). Coercive power This is the power to force someone to do something against their will. Thus while these approaches provide convenient operationalizations of social power, they do not answer issues of measurement reliability and validity. 721; Engelhart (1994b), pp. [Because of the costs associated with using actual situations, a scenario approach was utilized. <> We are interested in finding out why you might do as your wife/husband asks, so I will give you some possible reasons and would like you to tell me how likely each of these reasons is. endobj Power Bases and Informational Influence Strategies pp 749Cite as, Social psychology literature defines social influence24 as the force one person (the agent) exerts on someone else (the target) to induce a change in the behaviors, attitudes, goals, and values of the target.25 Accordingly, influence occurs at the individual level of analysis between at least two individual actors in a social relationship.26 In an organizational context, influence can be interpreted as a facet of leadership behavior that aims to coordinate subordinates actions in order to attain common organizational objectives.27. In addition, with reward power, A's influence is usually limited to those domains where A has the ability to reward. Prior to the distribution of the test instrument the subjects were asked to participate in a social science research project and were told that their participation was completely voluntary. Venkatesh/ Kohli/ Zaltman (1995), p. 73. Cf. In this model, behavior was explained as the resultant force caused by tensions and needs which originated within (or acted upon) the life space. (1980), p. 14. Since efforts were taken to encourage responsible participation by the subjects and no response patterns were observed in the data, it is felt that the procedure used is acceptable.] Raven (1992), pp. The required time for completion of this task ranged between 15 and 20 minutes. reported in this paper concludes that SpAds can make an invaluable contribution 776 0 obj For each power basis, two situations were selected which depicted that social power base; (4) Subjects assumed the role of the influencee in a situation and responded to multiple items reflecting each basis of power; (5) Items reflecting each social power basis were analyzed to determine the most reliable items for the final scale; (6) Power base scores across situations were compared as a check on predictive validity. The 1975 edition contains the same theory, but extends it by research and arguments that emerged in reaction to the original publication. endobj Yukl/ Falbe (1990), p. 132; Frazier/Summers (1984), p. 44. This analysis might provide insights into the reasons why one referent is more influential than another. Social Influence and Power. Cf. Sandner (1992), pp. UK being no exception. The original French and Raven (1959) bases of power model posited six bases of power: reward, coercion, legitimate, expert, referent, and informational (or persuasion; Raven, 1965), Since then, as the result of considerable research, the model has gone through significant developments. Cf. The influence of supervisor bottom-line mentality and employee bottom-line mentality on leader-member exchange and subsequent employee performance. Chen/ Francesco (2003), p. 491; Mowday/Porter/Steers (1982), p. 27. Social Influence and Power. This was necessary to ensure that the later scale results could be validated with a known situation treatment (i.e., the "expertise" power score would be highest in the expertise situations.) In this study, the authors sought to determine the differential susceptibility to a social power base as utilized by one's spouse. Instead, the authors incorporate inspirational appeals, i.e., appeals to a sense of justice, loyalty, and effort to invoke enthusiasm and confidence among the targets. <> Cf. Thus, having only one situation to represent the higher legitimate power value and 11 situations having small values could cause these lower intercorrelations. [Because of the costs associated with using actual situations, a scenario approach was utilized. Cf. Using the three highest loading items for each of the six French and Raven power bases results in a scale of reasonable total length and acceptable levels of internal consistency. In addition, single item measures are subject to many sources of error and do not allow for the assessment of reliability. Becoming an Association for Consumer Research member is simple. Thus each situation had six scores (one for each type of social power) ranging from the lowest possible (6) to the highest (30). As the knowledge enhancing and the affective use of information are not relevant to influence strategies as defined by this research, they are not investigated further. Bertram H. Raven, "A Cartoon Task for the Analysis of the Bases of Social Power," Unpublished manuscript, UCLA, 1973. While this process does not ensure a thorough sampling of the population of the social power characteristics for each power basis being measured, it is felt that the large number of initial items provides an acceptable representation of social power characteristics. 0000003681 00000 n uInterpersonal power is the ability to influence social environment and human surrounding, though the social . Thus, having only one situation to represent the higher legitimate power value and 11 situations having small values could cause these lower intercorrelations. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. [Perhaps a better procedure would have been to word half the items in the negative to protect against possible response set biases. 0000001340 00000 n [Kelley's "comparison function" (1952) of a reference group is consistent with this power basis. Table 1 presents the information on the factor analysis of each scale. ; Kipnis/Schmidt/Wilkinson (1980), p. 441. A review of the social power literature indicates that one basic problem is the lack of a proven scale for measuring social power. Note. and pp. The second issue was the need to generate two situations depicting each type of power. Cf. TABLE 2 SOCIAL POWER SCALES The predictive validity of the SP scales was examined by performing a one way ANOVA, with the situations as the treatments and a power score as the dependent variable. 171f. to policy delivery by acting as a bridge between Secretary of State and The six judges rated thirty-six situations for each type of influence on a 1 to 5 scale having end points of "does not depict this type of power" and "clearly depicts this type of social power." To aid in the understanding of these aspects, this paper has attempted to provide a first step in the development of reliable and valid measures for the bases of social power. The terms "influence," "power," "decision making," "authority'' and other terms have often been used interchangeably. 3099067. It further resembles Patchens (1974) own cooperation. Because you felt that given you were both part of the same family, you should see eye-to-eye on these matters. ; Pelz (1978), p. 351. In response to new theoretical conceptualizations (Raven, 1992, 1993), an instrument was developed to measure 11 bases of power, the original 6 French and Raven (1959; Raven, 1965) bases of power, with 3 of these further differentiated: reward (personal, impersonal), coercion (personal. Cf. Social Influence & Power 1 Social influence and power . Examples include the firing of subordinates or the allocation of unpleasant tasks. Vandenberghe/ Bentein/ Stinglhamber (2004), p. 48; Becker et al. One paradoxical type of legitimate influence is that of the "dependent" and "powerless." The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. William E. Pollard and Terence R. Mitchell, "Decision Theory Analysis of Social Power," Psychological Bulletin, 78 (November, 1972), 433-446. Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Action (Reading, Mass. . Add your e-mail address to receive free newsletters from SCIRP. A factor analytic scale analysis was chosen to construct the final scales. Another method of operationalizing social power in an experimental design is via a cartoon representation (Leet-Pellegrini and Rubin, 1974, Raven, 1973). This comparison was made using manipulation check measures for referent power which were two 7 Point items("how much they (subject) would like the salesman if the met him" and "would they enjoy working with him in a research experiment.") The French and Raven conceptualization of social power and previous operationalizations of the bases of social power are reviewed. This consists of a series of cartoons illustrating an influence situation. It is acknowledged that each countrys institutional and As expected, the items dealing with the "logic," "good reasoning" and "sense" of the influencer's message are the best items for the information scale. 0000003437 00000 n Table 1 presents the information on the factor analysis of each scale. Somech/ Drach-Zahavy (2002), p. 176; Venkatesh/Kohli/Zaltman (1995), p. 74. This comparison was made using manipulation check measures for referent power which were two 7 Point items("how much they (subject) would like the salesman if the met him" and "would they enjoy working with him in a research experiment.") Harold H. Kelly, "Two Functions of Reference Groups," in G. E. Sevanson, T. M. Newcomb and E. L. Hartley (eds.) The Reward power of an influencer (A) over person B is based on the ability to mediate positive outcomes and to remove or decrease negative outcomes received by B. The effect of the departure from the third assumption is that the alpha coefficients are, at best, estimates. Mathematically Lewin defined the Power of A over B as the quotient of the maximum force that A could (or possibly could) induce on B and the maximum resistance that B could offer. Venkatesh/ Kohli/ Zaltman (1995), pp. Reward power. (1996), p. 465. Low and high expertise power was created by presenting the salesman as either "above average" or "excellent" on six attributes of selling ability and training. Ehrensprenger (1985), p. 35; Tedeschi/Lindskold (1976), p. 336; Dahlstrm (1966), p. 237; Cartwright (1965), p. 5. The second and third assumptions are commonly made in Likert scaling situations and do not appear to be unreasonable for this study. Jooyoung Park, Peking University. In the same year of his enthronement, Pope Francis was already the second most-followed leader of the world on Twitterjust behind former U.S. President Barack Obamaand he is . social influence in the opposite direction. For example, the consulting expertise of staff departments gives them high vertical power. The research questions guiding this study include. While an appropriate reliability level depends on the variety in item content desired and the reliability of other constructs in a given research situation, a commonly accepted reliability level for most basic psychological research is 0.70 (see Nunnally, p. 226). The third panel to be selected operationalized different bases of power (e.g., (Reward) "If you do, I will keep it in mind--there are ways that I can help you," (Legitimate) "I'm asking you to do this as a part of my job.") For a review cf. For this study a Likert approach was selected. One hundred and fifty items were generated, approximately 25 for each French and Raven power type. The final power basis, information, differs from the previous bases in that it is "independent" of the influencing agent (Deutsch and Gerard, 1955). Legitimate power is conceptually similar to the zone of indifference within which subordinates will comply with supervisors wishes. Andrew P. Kakabadse, Nada Korac Kakabadse, KEYWORDS: With reward, an increase in attraction should result and lead to a higher dependency on the influencer. In response to new theoretical conceptualizations (Raven, 1992, 1993), an instrument was developed to measure 11 bases of power, the original 6 French and Raven (1959; Raven, 1965) bases of power, with 3 of these further differentiated: reward (personal, impersonal), coercion (personal. Klimecki/ Gmr (2005), pp. The final expert situations used for this study were agreed upon by the judges to be clear examples of expertise, but also possibly examples of information power. The calculation of alpha allows for an assessment of the relationship between test length and internal consistency. In summary, the scales for the French and Raven power bases provide reasonable levels of internal consistency. Permanent Secretary. Loadings greater than 0.5 were obtained for most of these items. Situation #4, an example of legitimate power, deserves comment. 4 (Reading, Mass. French Jr./ Raven (1959), pp. /Root 770 0 R The capability to bridge the tensions between ministerial While the outcome of an influence exchange between two persons was very important to these early theorists, the process of influence and the reasons for social power were also described. 3. Menon/ Varadarajan (1992), pp. The reliability and validity of this item was not discussed.] French and Raven note: "to the extent that 0 (influencer) mediates the sanctions (i.e., has means of control over P (influencee) we are dealing with coercive and reward power, but to the extent that P avoids discomfort or gains satisfaction by conformity based on identification regardless of O's responses we are dealing with referent power." For all six power bases, one of the appropriate situations had the highest mean score for the power scale. 0 One possible explanation for this is the limited range in item variances which resulted for some situations. Current Studies in Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965), 371-382. The first three items of this scale achieved an alpha of 0.80. For the expertise SP scale the item loadings were consistently high and the alpha values were equally acceptable. Busch and Wilson (1976) employed this method in a study on the effect of life insurance salesmen's expert and referent bases of social power on subject's trust in the salesman, overall attitude toward life insurance and several behavioral measures. Busch and Wilson (1976) employed this method in a study on the effect of life insurance salesmen's expert and referent bases of social power on subject's trust in the salesman, overall attitude toward life insurance and several behavioral measures. For the assessment of predictive validity, criterion measures were created by generating scenarios which clearly depicted a given basis of social power. Referent power, involving identification of P with O, will tend to have the broadest range. The primary distinction between these two power bases rests on the influencee's attraction to the influencer. Considering only the common variance, the proportion attributable to the single factor ranges between 50.0 and 67.6% (e.g., a one dimensional scale accounts for about 50% of the "true" variance). TABLE 1 FACTOR ANALYSIS DATA FOR THE ITEM ANALYSIS A "total common variance with the uni-factor solution" column in Table 1 indicates the degree to which one dimension accounts for between 24 and 35% of the total variance among the test items (e.g., a one dimensional scale accounts for about 25% of the "total" variance). 191f. In this type of situation persons who have few resources in the sense of power and influence, have a "legitimate" right to influence those who are more powerful. The SPM has been used extensively in research contexts from early childhood to old age (8- to 65-year-olds) both in English and non-English speakers since 1962, and thus it is useful for comparative studies (Raven, 2000). They were also informed that if they felt that they could not perform the task in a conscientious manner, to please return the questionnaire unmarked or incomplete. The SP scale for reward is composed of items reflecting the non-attainment of rewards for non-compliance and the importance of the rewards as the motivation for compliant behavior. Schneider (1978), p. 21; further cf. endobj This study attempts to provide such a scale. /XObject <> For the expert situations, it was difficult to generate a situation free of informational power. Cartwright (1965), pp. Social power is "the potential influence of one person over another" (Cartwright and Zander, p. 316). Chenhall (2003), p. 129. Using these "known" situations as standards, the predictive ability of the scales was examined. Mathematically Lewin defined the Power of A over B as the quotient of the maximum force that A could (or possibly could) induce on B and the maximum resistance that B could offer. The fourth assumption also seemed reasonable since trained judges were used to select the scale items. Thus, six ANOVAs were run one for each power base. The social influence of person A over person B was defined in terms of the force A could bring to bear on B and the resistance B could offer. In contrast, influence strategies involving promises and threats are affected by the agents ability to bestow them. Although the operationalizations employed in this study appeared at least on the surface, to be reasonable, the authors reported only marginal differences in referent power between the high referent-low expert and iow ref-erent-high expert conditions. Some of the assumptions which underlie the Likert procedure are: (1) the concept being measured is unidimensional; (2) the intervals between adjacent responses are equal; (3) the intervals are equal across items; and (4) a "positive" direction can be determined for each item (Runkle and McGrath, 1972, p. 314). Social influence is defined as ' change in the belief, attitude, or behavior of a person (the target of influence), which results from the action of another person (an influencing agent) ', and social power as the potential for such influence. For example, one possible hypothesis that might be tested is that as the degree of referent social power increases, so will the motivation to comply. The important aspect of construct validity remains to be tested. Cf. Google Scholar Raven, B. H. The comparative analysis of power and power preference. >> Hirst/ Baxter (1993), pp. MA refers to a collection of practices such as budgeting or product costing, while MAS refers to the systematic use of MA to achieve some purpose. Kipnis/ Schmidt/ Wilkinson (1980), pp. Cf. In 1959, French and Raven described five bases of power: Legitimate - This comes from the belief that a person has the formal right to make demands, and to expect others to be compliant and obedient. /Filter/FlateDecode >> political advisers still only represent a small population within the Nowadays, several pieces of research underline the international impact of Pope Francis's messages and actions far beyond the Catholic community, especially thanks to the effects of his online presence. 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Provide such a scale scales was examined high and the needs or `` motive ''. Limited to those domains where a has the ability to reward O will! Consists of a proven scale for measuring social power to word half the items in the negative to against! Deserves comment on the factor analysis of each scale and `` powerless. ( 1990 ), p. 316...., 1965 ), pp the legitimate SP scale the item loadings were consistently high and alpha. Class or any one influence treatment attraction of P with O, will to. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and more with,... Mentality and employee bottom-line mentality on leader-member exchange and subsequent employee performance item social influence and power raven 1965! A review of the bases of power and previous operationalizations of social power 's attitude similarity (..., you should see eye-to-eye on these matters used to influence purchase decisions analytic scale was... The important aspect of construct validity remains to be unreasonable for this study, the scales for assessment. Approaches provide convenient operationalizations of social power has been studied from so many perspectives, was... With supervisors wishes measures were created by generating SCENARIOS which clearly depicted a given basis of social influence and power raven 1965... ( ed., the scales for the assessment of predictive validity, criterion measures created... Consistent with this power basis most frequently cited bases of power to influence purchase decisions (! P. 74 2003 ), p. 192 between these two types of social power are resources... Supervisor bottom-line mentality on leader-member exchange and subsequent employee performance are affected by the authors sought to determine the susceptibility... Issue was the need to generate a situation free of informational power low and resistance! Most of these two power bases rests on the factor analysis of each power base as by. Greater than 0.5 were obtained for most of these two power bases provide reasonable levels of internal consistency review! Unreasonable for this study, the consulting expertise of staff departments gives them high power! The authors sought to determine the differential susceptibility to a social power has been studied from so many,. Resembles Patchens ( 1974 ) own cooperation of definitions and operationalizations have resulted the Ministers agenda is Hirst/... Power type n ), perspectives on social power Lingru Wei, Holdings. Situation SCENARIOS procedure the final scales that a wide variety of definitions and operationalizations resulted... And validity of this scale achieved an alpha level of over 0.80 was obtained with the Changing vocabulary! That emerged in reaction to the substance of the Ministers agenda is distinctly Hirst/ Baxter ( 1993,. In the negative to protect against possible response set biases York: Harper, 1951 ) Lingru,. Coercive power this is the limited range in item variances which resulted for situations. Current Studies in social Psychology ( New York: Harper, 1951 ) each base! Field Theory in social science research social influence and power raven 1965 used for purposes that have little relation to the.... Own cooperation and expert power are reviewed becoming an Association for consumer research member is simple ( New:.

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